Statement of the problem Essay Example for Free

Statement of the problem EssayAs a prominent American historical figure, societys opinion on antic chocolate-brown is highly influenced by kitchen-gardening and value systems. However, it is a given that some of these values continuously fluctuate and some remain throughout time. With the changes in time and values from the time of posterior Browns active action and his death, how did public perception of him change? If so, what are the factors that affect these changes? Objectives This paper seeks to throw out some light on how John Brown was viewed throughout history and time and what factors affected these perceptions of his character. An analysis of information regarding his portrayal in popular culture and a discussion on how these portrayals came about shall be included in this paper. Significance of the Study This study is geared towards looking at and analyzing John Browns living and seeing how society viewed him while he was alive and after his death. Since it has been established that there has been a conflicting public opinion regarding John Brown, this study will help shed some light on the reasons for this differing public opinion and analyze the factors that contribute to these differences.Using John Brown as a base, sociological dynamics can be more fully understood. Scope and Limitations This study shall only be using online articles, journals and some books as its reference. selective information shall be gathered from these materials and a suitable data analysis by the author shall be the basis of the conclusions made in this paper. REVIEW OF RELATED publications A. Abolitionism and Slavery in the United States The Roots of Slavery Slavery in the United States involved the selling, purchase, ownership of African or even autochthonic American slaves.It first began when the English built their community in Virginia in 1607 and ended up being widely-accepted tradition until 1865. Many of the slaves were gathered from pagan countries a nd this was written into impartiality by 1705. In Columbia, a slave is defined in law as a human being who is deprived of his or her liberty for life and is the property of another. It was legal to own and keep slaves for as long as they were still alive from 1654 to 1865. By 1860, ownership of slaves has become so widespread that a fourth of the population during that time are comprised of slaves.Disease, famine and damages caused by the war against Native Americans have kept available labor down, and this made importee of slaves more palatable for many business men. The slaves were treated as capital for labor intensive commerce such as the cash crop persistence of tobacco. They were considered as the life line of the souths agricultural industry. A large proportion of the slaves were owned by farmers from the south, as a single farmer there owned an average of 20 slaves.Labor intensive commerce was mostly found in the south as these regions grew tobacco, cotton and sugar as primary exports. Many of the slaves were found in these farms, and here they contributed much to the economic welfare of the country. Racial basis of slavery were not only applied to Africans and Native Americans, but also to some members of the Caucasian race. Some Europeans were also utilized as slaves under a contract to pay debts. These white slaves were only held for a limited amount of time and not fully owned like African slaves.

Essay Dramatistic Analysis on Breaking Bad Essay Example for Free

Essay Dramatistic Analysis on Breaking Bad EssayCady is going to encounter psychological struggle and unwritten genial rules that teenage girls face today. Through the Marxist perspective, the movie will be analyzed in order to show how sometimes the pull to conform to hegemony is so important that we have no choice that letting us be dragged to respect the established hierarchy. think Girls is an excellent artifact, worthy of investigation in the expression that it shows how we expect teenage girls to act, but also how difficult it is for them to refrain from acting that way. When using the Marxist perspective, we begin by identifying the subject positions, as models or anti-models. Mean Girls provides clear subject positions about the models characters that viewers are encouraged to want to be like, and the anti-models characters that viewers are encouraged to no want to be like. Thus, the models front to be The Plastics, a collectioning composed of the three teenage gi rls Regina George, Gretchen Wieners and Karen Smith. By analyzing The Plastics, it seems like teenage girls need to follow a specific pattern in order to be popular.That is to say, on a physical standpoint, teenage girls need to be thin, pretty, and wear tight and revealing clothes, while on a behavioural standpoint, they spend their time gossiping, partying, dating, and talking about boys, rather than focusing on their academic success. On top of the hierarchy is Regina George, and the two other Plastics are her subordinate. On the contrary, the anti-models, challenging the status quo and considered as abnormal or undesirable are represented by Janice and Damien.Both of them are belonging to the oppressed group, or the group that is considered as inferior and subordinate to the dominant group. Mean Girls depicts how easy it is for a dominant group (The Plastics) to impose its ideology on other groups. The interests of the empowered group are then promoting as being natural. Indeed , in Mean Girls, the dominant social group keeps the control over the other groups because nobody dares challenging the permission claimed by The Plastic. The Plastics keep their status quo by oppressing and manipulating the other subordinate groups.They dictate how things should be. The positive power of popularity combined with the negative disempowerment of being unpopular and jilted ultimately reinforces hegemony. That is to say, those who are popular are empowered even if popularity is just a facade for these teenage girls, and those who are non popular are disempowered. By focusing on Cady Heron, and observing how from an innocent teenage girl, she becomes a terrible Plastic, we can deduce that once accepted by the dominant group, state have trouble in seeing the flaws and drawbacks of the hegemony they are in.In order for them to be aware of it, they have to become a member of the subordinate group. unaccompanied the anti-models characters are able to see how wrong is th e hierarchy they live in, and are willing to change it in order to create a more suitable system. Mean Girls proposed both a preferred and an oppositional view on the hegemony. Indeed, from the beginning to the middle of the movie, Mean Girls brings a preferred reading with Cady altering her original beliefs, get together the dominant group and becoming a Plastic.Cadys desire to respect conformity can be explained by a need to foregather in and avoid ridicule. As a consequence, the viewers, siding with her, support the status quo. On the other hand, from the middle to the end of the movie, Mean Girls gives an oppositional reading by considering that The Plastics ought not to be empowered, in order to have a more equal system. Indeed, by the middle of the movie, Cady understands that her destructive behavior made her loose her two ambient friends (Janice and Damien).She also realizes she needs to stop acting like a Plastic and to categorize people according to superficial traits, and that she should start considering people according to opposite characteristics (intelligence over beauty for example). As a consequence, Cady, desirous of putting things right, starts to think how she could readjust the hegemony around her. Thus, she considers destroying the hegemony reigning at school in order to contest the status quo. At that time, the movie gives the viewers an oppositional reading rejecting thehegemony. In spite of the casualty and frivolity of the topic addressed (teenage girls movie), Mean Girls is still interesting to think over because it gives us some interesting and engaging acumen into Marxist perspective and hegemony. Mean Girls shows us how hard it is to resist hegemony when everyone else is subjected to it. Mean Girls also makes viewers being more critical about how hegemony is reproduced in regular patterns of life, like the passage in high school for example.

Use of ICT in Primary School Classrooms

Use of ICT in Primary School ClassroomsIntroductionThis chapter outlines the foundation for the researchers topic atomic number 18a. This forget be a summary of multiple pieces of literature the author has analysed to answer the question set out. The chosen bea is the drill of ICT-Information Communication engine room in sister classes in primary schools. This section go away begin by looking at what is Information Communication Technology (ICT). The author result realize off a brief explanation into what ICT is. Following defining ICT the author will examine the ICT software system used at infant classes in primary level. She will then investigate the benefits of using ICT at infant level in the primary school. From investigating the benefits the author will explore the limitations of using ICT at infant level in the primary school. Finally, she will research how infant childrens learning and enlargement is musical accompanimented by the use of ICT in the classroom.What is Information Communication Technology (ICT)Information Communication Technology (ICT) is defined by Barnardos (2006, P2) as The term ICT (information and communications technology) is used to describe a range of technological media. It is defined not just as calculating machines but coursemable toys, telephones, talking books, cameras, printers, s rear endners and much more than. Information Communication Technology (ICT) has become increasingly used in many lives. Recently the use of ICT has influenced signifi screwingt changes in our culture, as a result technology has become very much used instantly. As the world of technology develops, children in our schools today will live in a world where ICT will be pull aheadd in their daily lives.ICT is described by Crawford (2013, P1) as a reigning tool as it significantly extends peoples abilities, as a learning tool, it is particularly effective. The term ICT covers a range of tools and equipment. Aistear (2009) refers to ICT a s equipment that communicates and influence information. This includes mobile phones, computers, scanners and digital cameras. ICT includes ironware and software devices and programmes. ICT in education has the ability to increase the elements of peoples lives by enhancing teaching and learning. (NCCA, 2004)The invent Communication was added to Information and Technology (IT) in the easy 1990s as we now use various devices much(prenominal) as mobiles to send messages and to gain information it is unfair to limit ICT to computing or technology. ICT covers equipment everywhere at home and in the setting such as remote controls used for the television, game machines, computers, supermarket bar-code readers, washing machines, timers, heating controls, cameras, alarm systems, phones and electric displays. (Cockburn and Handscomb, 2006) Teachers should concur that four-year-old children need to be knowledgeable and familiar with basic technology as it is part of living in the 21st c entury. ( french, 2008)ICT Software Used in infant Classes at Primary LevelThere is a range of educational ICT software being used in primary schools today. This software is being substantial daily, to enhance childrens learning and development. The NCCA (2004) recognises that different software products may be more appropriate for children in different classrooms. The use of ICT software can improve and support the teaching and learning development across curricular areas, whether used in a specific lesson or for a short or long occlusion of time. (NCCA, 2004)A wide variety of software appropriate for different ages and stages, interests and level of ability will be needed in the curriculum. French (2008) talks approximately how great care must be taken when choosing particular ICT software for children. The software must mirror the childrens interests and should be stage appropriate. The suitability of the software will rely on the learning objectives and the age range and lev el of ability of the children. The effectiveness of any software program is established by the quality of the software and by how it is used. (NCCA, 2004) victimisation paint programmes allows children to experiment with colour, animations, experiment with the mouse and it is a way to instal children to the basic icons and buttons on the computer. Hayes and Whitebread (2006, P25) states Introducing a paint program enables children to understand that the computer is not just a tool for regaining information, but that it is also a tool for creativity. Teachers are familiar with reading stories out vocal to children but a lot of stories come in CD or app form now. There are different case studies, motivating activities and games that come in CD or app form. The tasks are well designed in that the children must understand them to complete them, and they do not provide themselves exclusively to trial and flaw answers. (Hayes and Whitebread, 2006) Interactive whiteboards are a new an d common form of ICT software used in primary schools today. Elston (2007, p9) describes interactive whiteboards as an erasable writing rear that interacts with a computer to capture writing electronically and enable interaction with a projected computer image. The interactive whiteboard works wither by contact the board or using a special pen. The interactive whiteboard comes with software that allows it to be used as a copy board. Children and teachers can draw or write on the whiteboard using their fingers or the pen and they can save their drawings to the computer. The interactive whiteboard comes with built in software called OCR which means the computer will secernate the childrens handwriting on the whiteboard and turn it into computer text. (Elston, 2007)The OECD (2002) conducted intensive case studies which examined the use of ICT in twenty one different schools. They found the well-nigh popular forms of ICT was word processor, but spreadsheets, graphing and drawing pro grammes, search engines, and presentation programs such as Powerpoint were also high. Many schools used the internet as a source of teaching or research. In these case studies, ICT was often based on a practice system. (OECD, (2002) Morgan and Blatchford (2009) states there is software developed for the use of young children to allow them to make and pee images, add sound effects in media products and add sounds and listen to stories.The NCTE (2013) recommends that each classroom should be appointed with a teaching computer, a short throw digital projector, a wireless keyboard, a mouse and five classroom computers or laptops. A visualiser should also be in place in each classroom. Primary schools should be supplied with a multi-media workstation to assist with the integration of audio/visual projects. Primary schools share some equipment such as cameras, wireless tablets, printers and scanners. use a digital camera can the teacher can take pictures of the childrens learning and cr eate a portfolio of them to show their parents, they can also be transferred to the computer for viewing, for a slide show, for printing or for film making. A wireless tablet can be used for teachers and children to draw, write, colour, listen to stories, do different kinds of subjects such as maths and music. (NCTE, 2013) Teachers should positively model how they use the software. Children should be balanced with lots of other activities to assist real life experiences. (Blatchford and Whitebread, 2003)The software used in infant classes must be suitable. Morgan and Blatchford (2009) agrees with French (2008) saying often the software can be unsuitable in terms that young children are specially vulnerable, in terms the content can be violent, frightening or highly emotional. (Hayes and Whitebread 2006) talks to the highest degree for children to benefit from ICT children need to be thought some the differences in the midst of the different software programmes.The Benefits of U sing ICT at Infant Level in the Primary SchoolICT has an effect on those who use them and their environment. These technologies can turn new opportunities to strengthen many aspects of childrens development. There is support and interest across the educator sector for the development and integration of ICT. As Epstein (2007) says computers can play an burning(prenominal) role if they are used correctly. Children can sometimes work with objects on a screen more easily than with real objects. This however doesnt indicate that computers should commute real objects.A considerable amount of research shows that when ICT is used correctly it can enhance childrens learning and development, it can encourage exploratory play, collaboration, co-operation, discussion, creativity, problem solving, attempt taking and thinking. (Barnardos, 2006) The ICT software can be used with different age groups and it can be used with children in a one to one stage setting or it can be used with children in a group. The ICT software can be used to support a child or children in a specific area of learning. NCCA (2004) acknowledges there are potential benefits for using ICT in classrooms also. According to the NCCA (2004) children gain motivation, problem solving skills, higher achievement and improvements in elevated thinking.Childrens imagination and sense of wonder can be supported through the use of context free software. The use of ICT can provide spacious opportunities for creative development in children. Children become more independent while developing their creative skills. (Potter 2000 cited in Meadows and Leaks, 2000) The children can enhance their creative skills through ICT in different areas of learning such as Arts and crafts, music and dance, imaginative play and role play. (Barnardos, 2006) ICT can encourage childrens physical skills. By children using the keyboard, the mouse, the buttons, skin senses the interactive whiteboard or tablet and knobs on a piece of e quipment such as a digital camera is an excellent way of developing finer motor skills. Occasionally children might date it easier to manipulate objects on a screen more easily than real objects. (French, 2008)Children encounter many different achievements and trips passim the years. Digital cameras are a great way of recording their accomplishments and sharing them with each other and their families. (NCCA, 2004) Computer play can encourage communication, speech and expression. Children are inclined to narrate what they are doing as they draw pictures or move items and characters around the interactive board. Children interacting at computers retain high stages of communication and co-operation skills. Using computers in the primary school can help childrens literacy development. One of the more current research shows that ICT supports children with special educational needs. Research shows that ICT can help children with communication problems and ICT helps children with SEN to access the curriculum more easily by using communication aids, software and appropriate assistive technology. (NCCA, 2004)Software programmes create a virtual environment which encourage children to read the screens and ask their friends questions about the situations. (Barnards, 2006) The Department and Education and Science (2008) agrees with Barnardos stating that ICT improves literacy, reading and writing skills especially for children in junior infant classes. The use of stories and rhymes on CD, on the internet or on an app enriches the childrens experiences of the written word. It allows them to repeat the words over and over again, forming and learning patterns of language and looking at the pictures gives them great enjoyment as the characters come to life. Children develop writing skills from using ICT. Children in infant classes are getting used to holding a pencil the correct way and are tracing letters. Children can practice other ways of writing as they use keyboards a nd different ICT software. (Selwyn et al, 2010)ICT can develop childrens social skills. Children will be more enthusiastic to learn about sharing, turn taking, co-operating and collaborating when they are joining in a group activity. (Zahariev etal, 2009) French (2008) also acknowledges that ICT can help childrens social skills. French (2008) believes children can sometimes find it easier to work with a friends on a computer than work alone. ICT can develop their social skills by creating rules for co-operation, children talking about what they are doing and children helping each other Choosing appropriate ICT software can teach children about different cultures, languages and ethnic backgrounds. ICT offers children to learn outside the classroom. The teacher can use different methods of technology to teach the children about different ethnic backgrounds, diverse families, people with special needs and abilities. With access to the internet or electronic resources the teacher has ac cess to different learning materials on any particular topic at any time which benefits the children. (Zahariev et al, 2009)As technology is becoming the future, by the teachers informing the children about the different forms of ICT, what ICT means, ICT tools and software it is preparing them for the future. Schools and the work environment will be technology related and by the children learning about technology it is large(p) them the confidence and skills to use such technologies in their later life.Although there is mixed results for using ICT in schools with young children DES (2008) says one of the major benefits of ICT is it can introduce a visual and interactive aspect into learning. ICT can help promote active learning by allowing the child to find, use and receive information. Research in UK found that ICT helps teachers facilitate the types of learners in the primary school curriculum. This research shows that teachers who use ICT in the classroom gestate described that ICT is more suited to support collaborative learning and active learning. (NCCA, 2004)Children can use ICT at different levels depending on their age and stage of development. In infant classes children will use the software to develop and expand their language and in senior classes they can use the software to broaden their language. (Eleven et al, 2012) ICT has an important part to play in developing childrens numeric concepts. It is extremely exciting and can help make learning fun and enjoyable ICT can support children as it provides challenges to develop concepts and skills installed in game-like situations. (NCCA, 2004) The internet can have many different resources, activities and sources for teachers to use to benefit children. If the internet is used appropriately it can support the development of childrens abilities to question, to analyse, to investigate and to think critically. (NCCA, 2004)The Limitations of Using ICT at Infant Level in the Primary School.As stated abo ve technology has many different benefits but some people have a fear that technology is replacing real objects. From a survey done by Early Childhood Ireland in 2013 it found out most members were worried aboutThe amount of screen time children observedThe impact ICT has on childrens reading abilitiesThe relationship between technology and obesityThe connection between technology and playICT cannot be used if the broadband speed is not consistent and reliable. A teacher in a school in County Waterford tries to find many different ways of bringing ICT into the school curriculum but when it comes to the schools internet access she cannot apply those skills to teach her students and it regularly leads to children being disappointed. (Murray, 2014)Teachers are not able to use all the technology available for learning.

Concepts of Object Oriented Techniques with OO Issues

Concepts of heading Oriented Techniques with OO IssuesAbstractObject- orientated frameworks offer re physical exercise at a high purpose level promising several benefits to the development of complex systems. This paper sought to 1) find out the concepts of reject oriented techniques in addition with the OO issues, development techniques and concepts of reject oriented computer programing, it is as well introduced the UML as an ordinary and key tool for object-oriented design, addition all(prenominal)y 2) we look further into the frameworks from the perspective of object-oriented techniques. In this section, it is aimed to define a reasonable promise among object oriented technology and frameworks. At the end, few future horizons for object oriented technology and frameworks atomic arrive 18 presented.I. originationComputing power and ne devilrk bandwidth grow increased dramatically over the past decade. However, the design and implementation of complex softw ar pack age remains expensive and erroneous belief-pr wiz. much of the cost and effort stems from the continuous re-discovery and re-invention of eye concepts and dowrys across the softw are industry. In point, the growing heterogeneity of backbreakingware architectures and diversity of operating system and communication platforms makes it hard to build correct, portable, efficient, and inexpensive covers from scratch. Object-oriented (OO) techniques and frameworks are promising technologies for reifying proven software designs and implementations in order to reduce the cost and improve the quality of software. A framework is a reusable, semi-complete application that rat be specialize to produce custom applications 19. In contrast to earlier OO utilise techniques based on syndicate libraries, frameworks are targeted for fragmentiseicular business units ( such(prenominal) as data impact or cellular communications1) and application domains (such as purposer embrasures or real- time avionics). Frameworks identical MacApp, ET++, Inter learns, ACE, Microsofts MFC and DCOM, JavaSofts RMI, and implementations of OMGs CORBA play an increasingly measurable role in contemporary software development.II. Object oriented concepts and techniquesHistoryThe concept of objects and pillow slips in computing had its first major breakthrough with the PDP-1 system at MIT which was probably the earliest example of cogency based architecture. An nigh an early(a)(prenominal)(prenominal) early example was Sketchpad hitd by Ivan Sutherland in 1963 however, this was an application and non a computer programing paradigm. Objects as computer programing entities were introduced in the sixties in Simula 67, a programing language knowing for performing simulations, created by Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen Nygaard of the Norwegian Computing Center in Oslo. (They were working on ship simulations, and were befudd post by the combinatorial explosion of how the polar attri ent irelyes from disparate ships could affect sensation another. The idea occurred to them of grouping the diametric theatrical roles of ships into different programmees of objects each secern of objects be amenable for defining its own data and behavior.) Such an approach was a simple extrapolation of concepts earlier used in latitudeue programming. On analog computers, mapping from real-world phenomena/objects to analog phenomena/objects (and conversely), was (and is) called simulation. Simula not only introduced the notion of crime syndicatees, but alike of instances of partes, which is probably the first explicit use of those notions. The ideas of Simula 67 influenced numerous posterior languages, especially Smalltalk and derivatives of Lisp and Pascal.The Smalltalk language, which was create at Xerox PARC2 (by Alan Kay and others) in the 1970s, introduced the depot object-oriented programming to represent the pervasive use of objects and messages as the basis for co mputation. Smalltalk creators were influenced by the ideas introduced in Simula 67, but Smalltalk was designed to be a fully ever-changing system in which folkes could be created and modified dynamically rather than statically as in Simula 67. Smalltalk and with it OOP were introduced to a wider audience by the grand 1981 issue of Byte magazine.In the 1970s, Kays Smalltalk work had influenced the Lisp community to incorporate object-based techniques which were introduced to developers via the Lisp machine. Experimentation with various extensions to Lisp (like LOOPS and Flavors introducing three-fold inheritance and mixins), reddentually led to the cat valium Lisp Object System (CLOS, a part of the first standardized object-oriented programming language, ANSI Common Lisp), which integrates functional programming and object-oriented programming and allows extension via a Meta-object protocol. In the 1980s, there were a few attempts to design processor architectures which includ e hardware support for objects in memory but these were not successful. Examples include the Intel iAPX 432 and the Linn Smart Rekursiv.Object-oriented programming developed as the dominant programming modeology during the mid-1990s, largely due to the influence of Visual FoxPro 3.0 or maybe C++. Its dominance was further enhance by the rising popularity of graphical user port wines, for which object-oriented programming seems to be well-suited. An example of a closely related dynamic GUI library and OOP language foot be found in the Cocoa frameworks on Mac OS X, written in Objective-C, an object-oriented, dynamic messaging extension to C based on Smalltalk. OOP toolkits overly enhanced the popularity of event-driven programming (although this concept is not limited to OOP). several(prenominal) feel that association with GUIs (real or perceived) was what propelled OOP into the programming mainstream.At ETH Zrich, Niklaus Wirth and his colleagues had also been investigation suc h topics as data abstraction and modular programming (although this had been in habitual use in the 1960s or earlier). Modula-2 (1978) included both, and their succeeding design, Oberon, included a distinctive approach to object orientation, kinfolkes, and such. The approach is unlike Smalltalk, and very unlike C++.Object-oriented features make water been added to some existing languages during that time, including Ada, BASIC, Fortran, Pascal, and others. Adding these features to languages that were not initially designed for them often led to problems with compatibility and maintainability of code.More recently, a number of languages have emerged that are primarily object-oriented yet compatible with adjectival methodology, such as Python and Ruby. Probably the nearly commercially important recent object-oriented languages are Visual Basic.NET (VB.NET) and C, both designed for Microsofts .NET platform, and Java, developed by temperateness Microsystems. VB.NET and C both supp ort cross-language inheritance, allowing classes outlined in one language to subclass classes outlined in the other language.Just as procedural programming led to refinements of techniques such as structured programming, innovative-fashioned object-oriented software design methods include refinements such as the use of design patterns, design by contract, and modeling languages (such as UML).The term OOPS, which refers to an object-oriented programming system, was common in early development of object-oriented programming.III. Fundamental concepts and featuresClassDefines the abstract characteristics of a social function (object), including the things characteristics (its attributes, fields or neatties) and the things behaviors (the things it merchant ship do, or methods, surgical executions or features). One world power formulate that a class is a blueprint or factory that describes the nature of something. For example, the class Dog would incorporate of traits shared by all dogs, such as breed and fur color (characteristics), and the ability to bark and sit (behaviors). Classes provide modularity and structure in an object-oriented computer program. A class should typically be recognizable to a non-programmer familiar with the problem domain, meaning that the characteristics of the class should make sense in condition. Also, the code for a class should be relatively complete (generally using encapsulation). Collectively, the properties and methods defined by a class are called members.ObjectA pattern (exemplar) of a class. The class Dog defines all possible dogs by tilting the characteristics and behaviors they great deal have the object lassie is one particular dog, with particular versions of the characteristics. A Dog has fur Lassie has brown-and-white fur.InstanceOne great deal have an instance of a class the instance is the actual object created at runtime. In programmer jargon, the Lassie object is an instance of the Dog class. The as semble of values of the attributes of a particular object is called its nominate. The object consists of state and the behavior thats defined in the objects class.More on Classes, Metaclasses, Parameterized Classes, and ExemplarsThere are two unspecific categories of objects classes and instances. Users of object-oriented technology usually think of classes as containing the information necessary to create instances, i.e., the structure and capabilities of an instance is specifyd by its gibe class. There are three commonly used (and different) views on the definition for classA class is a pattern, template, or blueprint for a category of structurally identical degrees. The items created using the class are called instances. This is often referred to as the class as a cookie cutter view. As you might guess, the instances are the cookies.A class is a thing that consists of both a pattern and a machine for creating items based on that pattern. This is the class as an instance f actory view instances are the individual items that are make (created) using the classs foundation mechanism.A class is the set of all items created using a specific pattern. Said another way, the class is the set of all instances of that pattern.We should tonicity that it is possible for an instance of a class to also be a class. A metaclass is a class whose instances themselves are classes. This means when we use the instance creation mechanism in a metaclass, the instance created entrust itself be a class. The instance creation mechanism of this class can, in turn, be used to create instances although these instances may or may not themselves be classes.A concept very similar to the metaclass is the parameterized class. A parameterized class is a template for a class wherein specific items have been identified as being indispensable to create non-parameterized classes based on the template. In effect, a parameterized class can be viewed as a fill in the blanks version of a class. One cannot directly use the instance creation mechanism of a parameterized class. First, we must supply the required parameters, resulting in the creation of a non-parameterized class. Once we have a non-parameterized class, we can use its creation mechanisms to create instances.In this paper, we result use the term class to mean metaclass, parameterized class, or a class that is neither a metaclass nor a parameterized class. We will make a avow bill only when it is necessary to do so. Further, we will occasionally refer to non-class instances. A non-class instance is an instance of a class, but is itself not a class. An instance of a metaclass, for example, would not be a non-class instance.In this paper, we will sometimes refer to instantiation. Instantiation has two common meaningsas a verb, instantiation is the process of creating an instance of a class, andas a noun, an instantiation is an instance of a class.Some tribe restrict the use of the term object to instanc es of classes. For these people, classes are not objects. However, when these people are confronted with the concepts of metaclasses and parameterized classes, they have a difficulty attempting to resolve the problems these concepts introduce. For example, is a class that is an instance of a metaclass an object even though it is itself a class? In this paper, we will use the term object to refer to both classes and their instances. We will only distinguish mingled with the two when conducted.Black Boxes and InterfacesObjects are black boxes. Specifically, the underlying implementations of objects are hidden from those that use the object. In object-oriented systems, it is only the producer (creator, designer, or builder) of an object that knows the details about the internal construction of that object. The consumers (users) of an object are denied familiarity of the inner workings of the object, and must deal with an object via one of its three distinct portsThe world porthol e. This is the larboard that is open (visible) to everybody.The inheritance interface. This is the interface that is accessible only by direct long suits of the object. (We will discuss inheritance and strong point later in this chapter.) In class-based object-oriented systems, only classes can provide an inheritance interface.The parameter interface. In the case of parameterized classes, the parameter interface defines the parameters that must be supplied to create an instance of the parameterized class.Another way of tell aparting that an item is in the cosmos interface of an object is to say that the object exports that item. Similarly, when an object requires information from outside of itself (e.g., as with the parameters in a parameterized class), we can say that the object needs to import that information. appealIt is, of course, possible for objects to be composed of other objects. Aggregation is eitherThe process of creating a new object from two or more other objects, orAn object that is composed of two or more other objects.For example, a picture object could be fashioned from a month object, a day object, and a year object. A key of names object, for example, can be fantasy of as containing m some(prenominal) name objects.A monolithic object is an object that has no externally-discernible structure. Said another way, a monolithic object does not expect to have been constructed from two or more other objects. Specifically, a monolithic object can only be treated as a viscous whole. Those outside of a monolithic object cannot directly interact with any (real or imagined) objects within the monolithic object. A radio button in a graphical user interface (GUI) is an example of a monolithic object.Composite objects are objects that have an externally-discernible structure, and the structure can be speech communicationed via the public interface of the mixed object. The objects that comprise a multiform object are referred to as voice objec ts. Composite objects meet one or both of the following criteriaThe state of a obscure object is directly affected by the presence or absence of one or more of its component objects, and/orThe component objects can be directly referenced via the public interface of their corresponding manifold object.It is useful to divide composite objects into two subcategories conglomerate composite objects and equal composite objectsA heterogeneous composite object is a composite object that is conceptually composed of component objects that are not all conceptually the same. For example, a date (made up of a month object, a day object, and a year object) is a heterogeneous composite object.A homogeneous composite object is a composite object that is conceptually composed of component objects that are all conceptually the same. For example, a proclivity of addresses is a homogeneous composite object.The rules for designing heterogeneous composite objects are different from the rules for des igning homogeneous composite objects. metier and InheritanceAggregation is not the only way in which two objects can be related. One object can be a specialization of another object. Specialization is eitherThe process of defining a new object based on a (typically) more narrow definition of an existing object, orAn object that is directly related to, and more narrowly defined than, another object.Specialization is usually associated with classes. It is usually only in the so-called class little object-oriented systems that we think of specialization for objects other than classes.Depending on their technical background, there are a number of different ways in which people express specialization. For example, those who are familiar with an object-oriented programming language called Smalltalk refer to specializations as subclasses and to the corresponding generalizations of these specializations as superclasses. Those with a background in the C++ programming language use the term de rived class for specialization and base class for corresponding generalizations.It is common to say that everything that is true for a generalization is also true for its corresponding specialization. We can, for example, define checking accounts and nest egg accounts as specializations of bank accounts. Another way of saying this is that a checking account is a kind of bank account, and a savings account is a kind of bank account. close up another way of expressing this idea is to say that everything that was true for the bank account is also true for the savings account and the checking account.In an object-oriented context, we speak of specializations as inherit characteristics from their corresponding generalizations. Inheritance can be defined as the process whereby one object acquires (gets, receives) characteristics from one or more other objects. Some object-oriented systems let only single inheritance, a office in which a specialization may only acquire characteristics from a single generalization. Many object-oriented systems, however, allow for multiple inheritance, a situation in which a specialization may acquire characteristics from two or more corresponding generalizations.Our previous discussion of the bank account, checking account, and savings account was an example of single inheritance. A telescope and a television set are both specializations of device that enables one to see things far away. A television set is also a kind of electronic device. You might say that a television set acquires characteristics from two different generalizations, device that enables one to see things far away and electronic device. Therefore, a television set is a product of multiple inheritance.Abstract ClassesWe usually think of classes as being complete definitions. However, there are situations where broken definitions are useful, and classes that represent these incomplete definitions are equally useful. For example, in everyday conversation, we might talk about such items as bank accounts, insurance policies, and houses. In object-oriented thinking, we often isolate useful, but incomplete, concepts such as these into their own special classes.Abstract classes are classes that embody rational and cohesive, but incomplete, concepts, and in turn, make these characteristics on hand(predicate) to their specializations via inheritance. People sometimes use the terms partial type and abstract superclass as synonyms for abstract class. While we would neer create instances of abstract classes, we most sure would make their individual characteristics available to more specialized classes via inheritance.For example, consider the concept of an railway car. On one hand, most people know what an automobile is. On the other hand, automobile is not a complete definition for any vehicle. It would be quite accurate to describe automobile as the set of characteristics that make a thing an automobile, in other words, the essence of automobile- ness.OperationsThe public interface of an object typically contains three different categories of items trading operations (sometimes referred to as method selectors, method interfaces, messages, or methods), everlastings, and ejections.An operation in the public interface of an object advertises a functional capability of that object. For example, bond would be an operation in the public interface of a bank account object, what is current temperature would be an operation in the public interface of a temperature sensing element object, and increment would be an operation in the public interface of a counter object.The actual algorithm for accomplishing an operation is referred to as a method. Unlike operations, methods are not in the public interface for an object. Rather, methods are hidden on the inside of an object. So, while users of bank account objects would know that they could make a deposit into a bank account, they would be unwitting of the details as to how that depo sit actually got credited to the bank account.We refer to the operations in the public interface of an object as suffered operations. Suffered operations are operations that meet two criteria they are things that happen to an object, and they are in the public interface of that object. For example, we can say that a bank account suffers the operation of having a deposit made into it. The bank account can also suffer the operation of being queried as to its current balance. Some people also refer to suffered operations as exported operations.There are three broad categories of suffered operations, i.e.A selector is an operation that tells us something about the state of an object, but cannot, by definition, dislodge the state of the object. An operation that tells us the current balance of a bank account is an example of a selector operation.A constructor is an operation that has the ability to change the state of an object. For example, an operation in the public interface to a mai lbox object that added a message to the mailbox would be a constructor operation. (Please note that some people restrict the definition of the term constructor to those operations that cause instances of a class to come into existence.)In the context of a homogeneous composite object, an iterator is an operation that allows its users to visit (access) each of the component objects that make up the homogeneous composite object. If we have a list of addresses, for example, and we deficiency to print the entire list, an iterator would allow us to visit each address object within the list and then, in turn, to print each address.Iterators can be further divided into two broad categories active (open) iterators and passive (closed) iterators. Active iterators are objects in their own right. hands-off iterators are implemented as operations in the interface of the object over which they allow iteration. Passive iterators are further broken down into discriminating iterators and constru ctive iterators. Passive selective iterators do not allow their users to change the object over which the iteration takes assign. Passive constructive iterators do allow users to change the object over which iteration takes place.We can also describe suffered operations as native or composite. A primitive operation is an operation that cannot be accomplished simply, efficiently, and reliably without direct knowledge of the underlying (hidden) implementation of the object. As an example, we could argue that an operation that added an item to a list object, or an operation that deleted an item from a list object were primitive operations with respect to the list object.Suppose that we wanted to create a swap operation, an operation that would swap in a new item in a list, while at the same time swapping out an old item in the same list. This is not a primitive operation since we can accomplish this with a simple combination of the delete operation (deleting the old item) followed by the add operation (adding the new item). The swap operation is an example of a composite operation. A composite operation is any operation that is composed, or can be composed, of two or more primitive operations.Sometimes objects need help in maintaining their characteristics. Suppose, for example, that we wanted to create a generic ordered list object. An ordered list is a list that must order its limit from the smallest to the largest. Specifically, every time we add an item to our ordered list, that item would have to be move in its proper position with respect to all the other items already in the list. By generic, we mean a template that can be instantiated with the category (class) of items we wish to place in the ordered list.It would not be unreasonable to implement this object as a parameterized class. Obviously, one of the parameters would be the category of items (e.g., class) that we desired to place in the list. For example, could instantiate (make an instance) the generic ordered list with a name class resulting in the creation of an ordered list of names class.There is a problem, however. prone that we could instantiate the generic ordered list with just about any category of items, how can we be sure that the ordered lists will know how to correctly maintain order no content what we use to instantiate the generic ordered list? Suppose, for example, that we wanted an ordered list of fazoomas. How could the generic list class tell if one fazooma was greater than or less than another fazooma?A solution would be for the generic ordered list to require a encourage parameter, a parameter over and supra the category of items (class) that we desired to place in the list. This second parameter would be a The ConstantsIn addition to suffered operations, the public interface of an object can also contain constants. Constants are objects of constant state. Imagine that we want to create a spring list of addresses class. A bounded list is a list t hat has a fixed maximum number of elements. A bounded list can be empty, and it can contain less than the maximum number of elements. It can even contain the maximum number of elements, but it can never contain more than the defined maximum number of elements.Assume that we place a constant in the public interface of our bounded list of addresses. This constant represents the maximum number of elements that can be placed in the bounded list. Assume also that there is a suffered operation that will tell us how many elements (addresses, in our example) are currently in the bounded list. We can now determine how much room is available in the bounded list by inquiring how many addresses are already in the list, and then subtracting this from the previously-defined constant.In some cases, as with the bounded list example above, constants are provided more for convenience than necessity. In other cases, such as in the case of encryption algorithms needing a seed value, constants are an a bsolute requirement.ExceptionsA third category of items that can be found in the public interface of objects is excommunications. Exceptions have two different definitionsan event that causes suspension of shape application execution, anda set of information directly relating to the event that caused suspension of normal application execution.Exceptions can be contrasted with an older, less reliable technology error codes. The idea behind error codes was fairly simple. You would request that an application, or part of an application, accomplish some work. One of the pieces of information that would be returned to the requester would be an error code. If all had gone well, the error code would typically have a value of zero. If any problems had occurred, the error code would have a non-zero value. It was also quite common to associate different non-zero values of an error code with specific errors.Error codes suffered from two major problemsNo one was pressure to actually check th e value of returned error codes.Changes (additions, deletions, and modifications) in the meanings of the special values assigned to error codes were not mechanically passed on to interested parties. Tracking the personal effects of a changed error code value often consumed a significant amount of resources.To control how exceptions directly address both of these issues, we first need to understand how exceptions typically workExceptions may be defined by the environment or by the user.When an exceptional (but not unforeseen) condition occurs, an appropriate exception is activated. (People use different terms to express the activation of an exception. The most common is raise. Less commonly, people use the terms guard or activate.) This activation may be automatic (controlled by the environment) or may be expressly requested by the designer of the object or application.Examples of exceptional conditions include trying to accept something from an empty container, directing an eleva tor on the top floor to go up, and attempting to cause a date to take on an invalid value like February 31, 1993.Once the exception is activated, normal application execution stops and control is transferred to a locally defined exception handler, if one is present. If no locally defined exception handler is present or if the exception handler is not equipped to handle the exception, the exception is propagated to the abutting higher level of the application. Exceptions cannot be ignored. An exception will continue to be sent to higher levels of the application until it is either turned off or the application ceases to function.An exception handler checks to see what type of exception has been activated. If the exception is one that the handler recognizes, a specific set of actions is taken. Executing a set of actions in response to an exception is known as handling the exception. Handling an exception deactivates the exception the exception will not be propagated any further.Unlik e error codes, exceptions cannot be ignored. Once an exception has been activated, it demands attention. In object-oriented systems, exceptions are placed in the public interfaces of objects. Changes in the public interfaces of objects very often require an automatic rechecking of all other objects that invoke operations in the changed objects. Thus, changes in exceptions result in at least a partially automated propagation of change information.Object Coupling and Object CohesionEngineers have known for centuries that the less any one part of a system knows about any other part of that same system, the better the overall system. Systems whose components are highly nonsymbiotic of each other are easier to fix and enhance than systems where there are strong interdependencies among some or all of the components. Highly independent system components are possible when there is minimal coupling among the components, and each component is highly cohesive.Coupling is a value of the stren gth of the connection amid any two system components. The more any one component knows about another component, the tighter (worse) the coupling is between those two components. Cohesion is a measure of how logically related the parts of an individual component are to each oConcepts of Object Oriented Techniques with OO IssuesConcepts of Object Oriented Techniques with OO IssuesAbstractObject-oriented frameworks offer reuse at a high design level promising several benefits to the development of complex systems. This paper sought to 1) define the concepts of object oriented techniques in addition with the OO issues, development techniques and concepts of object oriented programming, it is also introduced the UML as an ordinary and key tool for object-oriented design, additionally 2) we look further into the frameworks from the perspective of object-oriented techniques. In this section, it is aimed to define a reasonable promise between object oriented technology and frameworks. At t he end, some future horizons for object oriented technology and frameworks are presented.I. IntroductionComputing power and network bandwidth have increased dramatically over the past decade. However, the design and implementation of complex software remains expensive and error-prone. Much of the cost and effort stems from the continuous re-discovery and re-invention of core concepts and components across the software industry. In particular, the growing heterogeneity of hardware architectures and diversity of operating system and communication platforms makes it hard to build correct, portable, efficient, and inexpensive applications from scratch. Object-oriented (OO) techniques and frameworks are promising technologies for reifying proven software designs and implementations in order to reduce the cost and improve the quality of software. A framework is a reusable, semi-complete application that can be specialized to produce custom applications 19. In contrast to earlier OO reuse techniques based on class libraries, frameworks are targeted for particular business units (such as data processing or cellular communications1) and application domains (such as user interfaces or real-time avionics). Frameworks like MacApp, ET++, Interviews, ACE, Microsofts MFC and DCOM, JavaSofts RMI, and implementations of OMGs CORBA play an increasingly important role in contemporary software development.II. Object oriented concepts and techniquesHistoryThe concept of objects and instances in computing had its first major breakthrough with the PDP-1 system at MIT which was probably the earliest example of capability based architecture. Another early example was Sketchpad created by Ivan Sutherland in 1963 however, this was an application and not a programming paradigm. Objects as programming entities were introduced in the 1960s in Simula 67, a programming language designed for performing simulations, created by Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen Nygaard of the Norwegian Computing Cente r in Oslo. (They were working on ship simulations, and were confounded by the combinatorial explosion of how the different attributes from different ships could affect one another. The idea occurred to them of grouping the different types of ships into different classes of objects each class of objects being responsible for defining its own data and behavior.) Such an approach was a simple extrapolation of concepts earlier used in analog programming. On analog computers, mapping from real-world phenomena/objects to analog phenomena/objects (and conversely), was (and is) called simulation. Simula not only introduced the notion of classes, but also of instances of classes, which is probably the first explicit use of those notions. The ideas of Simula 67 influenced many later languages, especially Smalltalk and derivatives of Lisp and Pascal.The Smalltalk language, which was developed at Xerox PARC2 (by Alan Kay and others) in the 1970s, introduced the term object-oriented programming to represent the pervasive use of objects and messages as the basis for computation. Smalltalk creators were influenced by the ideas introduced in Simula 67, but Smalltalk was designed to be a fully dynamic system in which classes could be created and modified dynamically rather than statically as in Simula 67. Smalltalk and with it OOP were introduced to a wider audience by the August 1981 issue of Byte magazine.In the 1970s, Kays Smalltalk work had influenced the Lisp community to incorporate object-based techniques which were introduced to developers via the Lisp machine. Experimentation with various extensions to Lisp (like LOOPS and Flavors introducing multiple inheritance and mixins), eventually led to the Common Lisp Object System (CLOS, a part of the first standardized object-oriented programming language, ANSI Common Lisp), which integrates functional programming and object-oriented programming and allows extension via a Meta-object protocol. In the 1980s, there were a few attempts to design processor architectures which included hardware support for objects in memory but these were not successful. Examples include the Intel iAPX 432 and the Linn Smart Rekursiv.Object-oriented programming developed as the dominant programming methodology during the mid-1990s, largely due to the influence of Visual FoxPro 3.0 or possibly C++. Its dominance was further enhanced by the rising popularity of graphical user interfaces, for which object-oriented programming seems to be well-suited. An example of a closely related dynamic GUI library and OOP language can be found in the Cocoa frameworks on Mac OS X, written in Objective-C, an object-oriented, dynamic messaging extension to C based on Smalltalk. OOP toolkits also enhanced the popularity of event-driven programming (although this concept is not limited to OOP). Some feel that association with GUIs (real or perceived) was what propelled OOP into the programming mainstream.At ETH Zrich, Niklaus Wirth and his coll eagues had also been investigating such topics as data abstraction and modular programming (although this had been in common use in the 1960s or earlier). Modula-2 (1978) included both, and their succeeding design, Oberon, included a distinctive approach to object orientation, classes, and such. The approach is unlike Smalltalk, and very unlike C++.Object-oriented features have been added to many existing languages during that time, including Ada, BASIC, Fortran, Pascal, and others. Adding these features to languages that were not initially designed for them often led to problems with compatibility and maintainability of code.More recently, a number of languages have emerged that are primarily object-oriented yet compatible with procedural methodology, such as Python and Ruby. Probably the most commercially important recent object-oriented languages are Visual Basic.NET (VB.NET) and C, both designed for Microsofts .NET platform, and Java, developed by Sun Microsystems. VB.NET and C both support cross-language inheritance, allowing classes defined in one language to subclass classes defined in the other language.Just as procedural programming led to refinements of techniques such as structured programming, modern object-oriented software design methods include refinements such as the use of design patterns, design by contract, and modeling languages (such as UML).The term OOPS, which refers to an object-oriented programming system, was common in early development of object-oriented programming.III. Fundamental concepts and featuresClassDefines the abstract characteristics of a thing (object), including the things characteristics (its attributes, fields or properties) and the things behaviors (the things it can do, or methods, operations or features). One might say that a class is a blueprint or factory that describes the nature of something. For example, the class Dog would consist of traits shared by all dogs, such as breed and fur color (characteristics), and the ability to bark and sit (behaviors). Classes provide modularity and structure in an object-oriented computer program. A class should typically be recognizable to a non-programmer familiar with the problem domain, meaning that the characteristics of the class should make sense in context. Also, the code for a class should be relatively self-contained (generally using encapsulation). Collectively, the properties and methods defined by a class are called members.ObjectA pattern (exemplar) of a class. The class Dog defines all possible dogs by listing the characteristics and behaviors they can have the object Lassie is one particular dog, with particular versions of the characteristics. A Dog has fur Lassie has brown-and-white fur.InstanceOne can have an instance of a class the instance is the actual object created at runtime. In programmer jargon, the Lassie object is an instance of the Dog class. The set of values of the attributes of a particular object is called its state. The object consists of state and the behavior thats defined in the objects class.More on Classes, Metaclasses, Parameterized Classes, and ExemplarsThere are two broad categories of objects classes and instances. Users of object-oriented technology usually think of classes as containing the information necessary to create instances, i.e., the structure and capabilities of an instance is determined by its corresponding class. There are three commonly used (and different) views on the definition for classA class is a pattern, template, or blueprint for a category of structurally identical items. The items created using the class are called instances. This is often referred to as the class as a cookie cutter view. As you might guess, the instances are the cookies.A class is a thing that consists of both a pattern and a mechanism for creating items based on that pattern. This is the class as an instance factory view instances are the individual items that are manufactured (created) using the classs creation mechanism.A class is the set of all items created using a specific pattern. Said another way, the class is the set of all instances of that pattern.We should note that it is possible for an instance of a class to also be a class. A metaclass is a class whose instances themselves are classes. This means when we use the instance creation mechanism in a metaclass, the instance created will itself be a class. The instance creation mechanism of this class can, in turn, be used to create instances although these instances may or may not themselves be classes.A concept very similar to the metaclass is the parameterized class. A parameterized class is a template for a class wherein specific items have been identified as being required to create non-parameterized classes based on the template. In effect, a parameterized class can be viewed as a fill in the blanks version of a class. One cannot directly use the instance creation mechanism of a parameterized class. First, we must supply the required parameters, resulting in the creation of a non-parameterized class. Once we have a non-parameterized class, we can use its creation mechanisms to create instances.In this paper, we will use the term class to mean metaclass, parameterized class, or a class that is neither a metaclass nor a parameterized class. We will make a distinction only when it is necessary to do so. Further, we will occasionally refer to non-class instances. A non-class instance is an instance of a class, but is itself not a class. An instance of a metaclass, for example, would not be a non-class instance.In this paper, we will sometimes refer to instantiation. Instantiation has two common meaningsas a verb, instantiation is the process of creating an instance of a class, andas a noun, an instantiation is an instance of a class.Some people restrict the use of the term object to instances of classes. For these people, classes are not objects. However, when these people are confronted wit h the concepts of metaclasses and parameterized classes, they have a difficulty attempting to resolve the problems these concepts introduce. For example, is a class that is an instance of a metaclass an object even though it is itself a class? In this paper, we will use the term object to refer to both classes and their instances. We will only distinguish between the two when needed.Black Boxes and InterfacesObjects are black boxes. Specifically, the underlying implementations of objects are hidden from those that use the object. In object-oriented systems, it is only the producer (creator, designer, or builder) of an object that knows the details about the internal construction of that object. The consumers (users) of an object are denied knowledge of the inner workings of the object, and must deal with an object via one of its three distinct interfacesThe public interface. This is the interface that is open (visible) to everybody.The inheritance interface. This is the interface t hat is accessible only by direct specializations of the object. (We will discuss inheritance and specialization later in this chapter.) In class-based object-oriented systems, only classes can provide an inheritance interface.The parameter interface. In the case of parameterized classes, the parameter interface defines the parameters that must be supplied to create an instance of the parameterized class.Another way of saying that an item is in the public interface of an object is to say that the object exports that item. Similarly, when an object requires information from outside of itself (e.g., as with the parameters in a parameterized class), we can say that the object needs to import that information.AggregationIt is, of course, possible for objects to be composed of other objects. Aggregation is eitherThe process of creating a new object from two or more other objects, orAn object that is composed of two or more other objects.For example, a date object could be fashioned from a month object, a day object, and a year object. A list of names object, for example, can be thought of as containing many name objects.A monolithic object is an object that has no externally-discernible structure. Said another way, a monolithic object does not appear to have been constructed from two or more other objects. Specifically, a monolithic object can only be treated as a cohesive whole. Those outside of a monolithic object cannot directly interact with any (real or imagined) objects within the monolithic object. A radio button in a graphical user interface (GUI) is an example of a monolithic object.Composite objects are objects that have an externally-discernible structure, and the structure can be addressed via the public interface of the composite object. The objects that comprise a composite object are referred to as component objects. Composite objects meet one or both of the following criteriaThe state of a composite object is directly affected by the presence or abse nce of one or more of its component objects, and/orThe component objects can be directly referenced via the public interface of their corresponding composite object.It is useful to divide composite objects into two subcategories heterogeneous composite objects and homogeneous composite objectsA heterogeneous composite object is a composite object that is conceptually composed of component objects that are not all conceptually the same. For example, a date (made up of a month object, a day object, and a year object) is a heterogeneous composite object.A homogeneous composite object is a composite object that is conceptually composed of component objects that are all conceptually the same. For example, a list of addresses is a homogeneous composite object.The rules for designing heterogeneous composite objects are different from the rules for designing homogeneous composite objects.Specialization and InheritanceAggregation is not the only way in which two objects can be related. One o bject can be a specialization of another object. Specialization is eitherThe process of defining a new object based on a (typically) more narrow definition of an existing object, orAn object that is directly related to, and more narrowly defined than, another object.Specialization is usually associated with classes. It is usually only in the so-called classless object-oriented systems that we think of specialization for objects other than classes.Depending on their technical background, there are a number of different ways in which people express specialization. For example, those who are familiar with an object-oriented programming language called Smalltalk refer to specializations as subclasses and to the corresponding generalizations of these specializations as superclasses. Those with a background in the C++ programming language use the term derived class for specialization and base class for corresponding generalizations.It is common to say that everything that is true for a ge neralization is also true for its corresponding specialization. We can, for example, define checking accounts and savings accounts as specializations of bank accounts. Another way of saying this is that a checking account is a kind of bank account, and a savings account is a kind of bank account. Still another way of expressing this idea is to say that everything that was true for the bank account is also true for the savings account and the checking account.In an object-oriented context, we speak of specializations as inheriting characteristics from their corresponding generalizations. Inheritance can be defined as the process whereby one object acquires (gets, receives) characteristics from one or more other objects. Some object-oriented systems permit only single inheritance, a situation in which a specialization may only acquire characteristics from a single generalization. Many object-oriented systems, however, allow for multiple inheritance, a situation in which a specializati on may acquire characteristics from two or more corresponding generalizations.Our previous discussion of the bank account, checking account, and savings account was an example of single inheritance. A telescope and a television set are both specializations of device that enables one to see things far away. A television set is also a kind of electronic device. You might say that a television set acquires characteristics from two different generalizations, device that enables one to see things far away and electronic device. Therefore, a television set is a product of multiple inheritance.Abstract ClassesWe usually think of classes as being complete definitions. However, there are situations where incomplete definitions are useful, and classes that represent these incomplete definitions are equally useful. For example, in everyday conversation, we might talk about such items as bank accounts, insurance policies, and houses. In object-oriented thinking, we often isolate useful, but inc omplete, concepts such as these into their own special classes.Abstract classes are classes that embody coherent and cohesive, but incomplete, concepts, and in turn, make these characteristics available to their specializations via inheritance. People sometimes use the terms partial type and abstract superclass as synonyms for abstract class. While we would never create instances of abstract classes, we most certainly would make their individual characteristics available to more specialized classes via inheritance.For example, consider the concept of an automobile. On one hand, most people know what an automobile is. On the other hand, automobile is not a complete definition for any vehicle. It would be quite accurate to describe automobile as the set of characteristics that make a thing an automobile, in other words, the essence of automobile-ness.OperationsThe public interface of an object typically contains three different categories of itemsoperations (sometimes referred to as m ethod selectors, method interfaces, messages, or methods),constants, andexceptions.An operation in the public interface of an object advertises a functional capability of that object. For example, deposit would be an operation in the public interface of a bank account object, what is current temperature would be an operation in the public interface of a temperature sensor object, and increment would be an operation in the public interface of a counter object.The actual algorithm for accomplishing an operation is referred to as a method. Unlike operations, methods are not in the public interface for an object. Rather, methods are hidden on the inside of an object. So, while users of bank account objects would know that they could make a deposit into a bank account, they would be unaware of the details as to how that deposit actually got credited to the bank account.We refer to the operations in the public interface of an object as suffered operations. Suffered operations are operatio ns that meet two criteria they are things that happen to an object, and they are in the public interface of that object. For example, we can say that a bank account suffers the operation of having a deposit made into it. The bank account can also suffer the operation of being queried as to its current balance. Some people also refer to suffered operations as exported operations.There are three broad categories of suffered operations, i.e.A selector is an operation that tells us something about the state of an object, but cannot, by definition, change the state of the object. An operation that tells us the current balance of a bank account is an example of a selector operation.A constructor is an operation that has the ability to change the state of an object. For example, an operation in the public interface to a mailbox object that added a message to the mailbox would be a constructor operation. (Please note that some people restrict the definition of the term constructor to those operations that cause instances of a class to come into existence.)In the context of a homogeneous composite object, an iterator is an operation that allows its users to visit (access) each of the component objects that make up the homogeneous composite object. If we have a list of addresses, for example, and we wish to print the entire list, an iterator would allow us to visit each address object within the list and then, in turn, to print each address.Iterators can be further divided into two broad categories active (open) iterators and passive (closed) iterators. Active iterators are objects in their own right. Passive iterators are implemented as operations in the interface of the object over which they allow iteration. Passive iterators are further broken down into selective iterators and constructive iterators. Passive selective iterators do not allow their users to change the object over which the iteration takes place. Passive constructive iterators do allow users to change the object over which iteration takes place.We can also describe suffered operations as primitive or composite. A primitive operation is an operation that cannot be accomplished simply, efficiently, and reliably without direct knowledge of the underlying (hidden) implementation of the object. As an example, we could argue that an operation that added an item to a list object, or an operation that deleted an item from a list object were primitive operations with respect to the list object.Suppose that we wanted to create a swap operation, an operation that would swap in a new item in a list, while at the same time swapping out an old item in the same list. This is not a primitive operation since we can accomplish this with a simple combination of the delete operation (deleting the old item) followed by the add operation (adding the new item). The swap operation is an example of a composite operation. A composite operation is any operation that is composed, or can be composed, of two or more primitive operations.Sometimes objects need help in maintaining their characteristics. Suppose, for example, that we wanted to create a generic ordered list object. An ordered list is a list that must order its contents from the smallest to the largest. Specifically, every time we add an item to our ordered list, that item would have to be placed in its proper position with respect to all the other items already in the list. By generic, we mean a template that can be instantiated with the category (class) of items we wish to place in the ordered list.It would not be unreasonable to implement this object as a parameterized class. Obviously, one of the parameters would be the category of items (e.g., class) that we desired to place in the list. For example, could instantiate (make an instance) the generic ordered list with a name class resulting in the creation of an ordered list of names class.There is a problem, however. Given that we could instantiate the generic ordered li st with just about any category of items, how can we be sure that the ordered lists will know how to properly maintain order no matter what we use to instantiate the generic ordered list? Suppose, for example, that we wanted an ordered list of fazoomas. How could the generic list class tell if one fazooma was greater than or less than another fazooma?A solution would be for the generic ordered list to require a second parameter, a parameter over and above the category of items (class) that we desired to place in the list. This second parameter would be a The ConstantsIn addition to suffered operations, the public interface of an object can also contain constants. Constants are objects of constant state. Imagine that we want to create a bounded list of addresses class. A bounded list is a list that has a fixed maximum number of elements. A bounded list can be empty, and it can contain fewer than the maximum number of elements. It can even contain the maximum number of elements, but it can never contain more than the defined maximum number of elements.Assume that we place a constant in the public interface of our bounded list of addresses. This constant represents the maximum number of elements that can be placed in the bounded list. Assume also that there is a suffered operation that will tell us how many elements (addresses, in our example) are currently in the bounded list. We can now determine how much room is available in the bounded list by inquiring how many addresses are already in the list, and then subtracting this from the previously-defined constant.In some cases, as with the bounded list example above, constants are provided more for convenience than necessity. In other cases, such as in the case of encryption algorithms needing a seed value, constants are an absolute requirement.ExceptionsA third category of items that can be found in the public interface of objects is exceptions. Exceptions have two different definitionsan event that causes suspe nsion of normal application execution, anda set of information directly relating to the event that caused suspension of normal application execution.Exceptions can be contrasted with an older, less reliable technology error codes. The idea behind error codes was fairly simple. You would request that an application, or part of an application, accomplish some work. One of the pieces of information that would be returned to the requester would be an error code. If all had gone well, the error code would typically have a value of zero. If any problems had occurred, the error code would have a non-zero value. It was also quite common to associate different non-zero values of an error code with specific errors.Error codes suffered from two major problemsNo one was forced to actually check the value of returned error codes.Changes (additions, deletions, and modifications) in the meanings of the special values assigned to error codes were not automatically passed on to interested parties. T racking the effects of a changed error code value often consumed a significant amount of resources.To understand how exceptions directly address both of these issues, we first need to understand how exceptions typically workExceptions may be defined by the environment or by the user.When an exceptional (but not unforeseen) condition occurs, an appropriate exception is activated. (People use different terms to express the activation of an exception. The most common is raise. Less commonly, people use the terms throw or activate.) This activation may be automatic (controlled by the environment) or may be expressly requested by the designer of the object or application.Examples of exceptional conditions include trying to remove something from an empty container, directing an elevator on the top floor to go up, and attempting to cause a date to take on an invalid value like February 31, 1993.Once the exception is activated, normal application execution stops and control is transferred t o a locally defined exception handler, if one is present. If no locally defined exception handler is present or if the exception handler is not equipped to handle the exception, the exception is propagated to the next higher level of the application. Exceptions cannot be ignored. An exception will continue to be sent to higher levels of the application until it is either turned off or the application ceases to function.An exception handler checks to see what type of exception has been activated. If the exception is one that the handler recognizes, a specific set of actions is taken. Executing a set of actions in response to an exception is known as handling the exception. Handling an exception deactivates the exception the exception will not be propagated any further.Unlike error codes, exceptions cannot be ignored. Once an exception has been activated, it demands attention. In object-oriented systems, exceptions are placed in the public interfaces of objects. Changes in the public interfaces of objects very often require an automatic rechecking of all other objects that invoke operations in the changed objects. Thus, changes in exceptions result in at least a partially automated propagation of change information.Object Coupling and Object CohesionEngineers have known for centuries that the less any one part of a system knows about any other part of that same system, the better the overall system. Systems whose components are highly independent of each other are easier to fix and enhance than systems where there are strong interdependencies among some or all of the components. Highly independent system components are possible when there is minimal coupling among the components, and each component is highly cohesive.Coupling is a measure of the strength of the connection between any two system components. The more any one component knows about another component, the tighter (worse) the coupling is between those two components. Cohesion is a measure of how logic ally related the parts of an individual component are to each o

Arguments Against Censorship in Music

Arguments Against Censorship in MusicHave you ever wondered wherefore radios have to bleep everything? Or why some CDs cant be sold in stores? Or why theres a little Parental Advisory gummed label on some albums? If you answered yes to any or all of these questions, then stick around, because for the undermentioned 5 minutes, I am breathing out to explain to you why the baning on our harmony is way too harsh. Censorship in music should be reconsidered because of legion(predicate) points such as political views, the fact that musicians are uncoerced to fight for their own music, and most of all, liberty of speechTheres a phone call that comes to mind when I think about political censorship. A striving called Not Ready To Make Nice by The Dixie Chicks. The song won three Grammies in the categories of Record of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best region Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals. The song is about how they, the knell, felt about the invasion of Iraq, and the responses to their position on this situation. Natalie Maines, the main vocalizer of the group, was quoted as saying that they dont want this war, this violence, and theyre ashamed that the President of the United States is from Texas. Some of the lines in the song are about the death threats that the band had received in 2003. How in the world can the words that I said s ending somebody so over the edge that theyd publish me a letter saying that I better shut up and sing or my life will be over. Another line in the song its a sad sad story when a mother will teach her daughter that she oughta hate a everlasting(a) stranger, refers to an incident where a mother is very egging on her untried child to say to the band screw em Think about that.The next song that I think of is American Idiot by Green Day. From the beginning, this song was opposed by most bulk in the US because of the open lyrics that tell the authors feelings towards President George W. Bush, and certain poli tical issues. Some believe that the song is anti-American because of the title. However, if you actually listen to the lyrics, you might see how patriotic the song really is. The title refers to the authors opinion of how politicians these days are telling batch what to do, buy, and believe, and how theyre constantly dooped by all these commercials and campaigns that eventually turn is into, for lack of a better term, American Idiots. In the song, the singer, Billie Joe Armstrong, says that he doesnt want his nation to become idiots, and doesnt want to be part of a cracker agenda, and doesnt want this country to be hated because of decisions made by the government. Welcome to a new kind of tension, all across the alienation.For this next topic, let me give you some background information. The committee that labels CDs as inappropriate and put the Parental Advisory stickers on CDs is called the Parents Music Resource Center, PMRC. It was founded in 1985 by Tipper Gore. It was create d with a goal of increasing parental control over the access of children to music deemed by an unknown source to be violent, have drug use or be sexual. The people to whom I will be referring to are John Denver, a famous musician during the 70s, and Dee Snider, the lead singer for the band Twisted Sister. These people were called to a senate hearing about the PMRC, and stated their opinions on the topic.John Denver had prepared an official statement for the hearing. After he had given his statement, he rung off the record, saying in my experience, sir, all over the world, one of the most interesting things about music that young people are hearing to, is it gives us as adults a very clear insight as to what is going on in their minds. We can know what theyre thinking by earshot to the music they surround themselves with. To me, this totally makes sense. Its an easy way for parents to communicate, and understand what their children are feeling, and thinking. He goes on to talk abo ut the troubled children hes talked to, and the troubles they have about an inability to communicate with their parents. This would all be fixed if parents could just understand what their kids are feeling and thinking by just listening every once and a while.This next man, Mr. Dee Snider, is quite an amazing and humble man. He starts out his official statement by saying, I am 30 years old, I am married, I have a 3 year old son. I was born and raised a Christian and I still adhere to those principles. Believe it or not, I do not smoke, I do not drink, and I do not do drugs. Does this heavy(p) like a man who needs to be censored? I didnt think so. In his statement, Mr. Snider talks about how he was attacked three several(predicate) times because of his music. The first one, Tipper Gore had written an article in a Long Island newspaper where she claimed one of his songs, Under the Blade, had lyrics encouraging sadomasochism, bondage, and rape. He actually talks about those lyrics an d says that the lyrics are about the fear that people get before they go into surgery. Attack number two, Twisted Sisters song Were Not Gonna Take It was labeled as rated V because of violent lyrical content, when Snider assures everyone that there is absolutely no violence of any type both sung about or implied anywhere in the song. Lastly, Mr. Snider was accused of sexism because of a T-shirt Tipper Gore thought she saw. In response to this, Snider says we have evermore taken great pains to steer clear of sexism in our merchandise, records, stage show, and personal prevails. Clearly, the PMRC is trying to make up stories to get their way.Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to solicit the Government for a redress of grievances. These are the exact words of the first amendment of the Bill of Rights. Ba sically, congress cant make any laws saying that people cant speak their minds. If you ask me, congress has done just that by censoring our music. I think that music is the most important and regent(postnominal) form of expression that both entertains and informs. So, why hide it? Moral values? Racial implications? Fear? The actual censoring of music began in the 1950s when handed-down conservative values were part of the peoples mindset. People during that time believed in those morals, and strived to determine what is acceptable for people to listen to. By the end of the 1950s, members of the society witnessed many young adults and teens expressing new attitudes about topics like sex and drugs. This movement started breaking down the traditional moral order in many ways, but curiously in music.It may seem off that race would be a factor in music censorship, but it actually is a huge problem, especially in the 50s and 60s when rhythm and blues was first introduced to the world. Some older white people believed that RB was a threat that corrupted the young people who listened to it, and that it promoted immoral behavior. This prompted government to take action. An example of these actions after receiving a myriad of angry letter from listeners, a Chicago radio station promised to censor any controversial music, especially RB. A more recent example of racial censorship in music would be MTV refusing to play music videos from black artists. During a live interview in 1983, famous musician David Bowie asked, Why are there practically no black artists on the network? Good question, Mr. Bowie. Im sure everyone else was thinking the same thing.Censorship is based on fear. A fear that music will affect us negatively. A fear that music will prevent us from achieving a morally acceptable life. A fear that society will change significantly. Not for the better. The people who decided to censor OUR music are afraid of the unknown, and our music seems to hold that unkn own and uncertainty. Theres a song from 1975 called The Pill by Loretta Lynn that was censored on many radio stations for more than 10 years after birth control pills became popular. People did this because they were afraid of the unknown, and thought that all their kids would start acting out, and going out of control. So, all these people who are afraid of our music just try to cover up the problem instead of facing it like adults.To end this speech, censorship in music should be reconsidered because of many points such as political views, the fact that musicians are willing to fight for their own music, and most of all, the freedom of speech. Now, instead of leaving it like this, Im going to leave you all with a quote from R. Andre Hall. From the Vietnam War to todays Iraq War, and from the advent of the sexual revolution to todays culture wars, music is recognized as a potential source of power to change values, ideas, and beliefs- as well as to influence actions. Those who fear this change try to stop it by censorship, even when, as history has shown us, censorship is futile when change is inevitable.

Critique of Dress Smart Men by Kim Johnson Gross and Jeff Stone :: Literature Review

II. Summary of Major IdeasKim Johnson Gross and Jeff nether region, in their book suffice Smart Men, layout their view on how men should dress for success in the business world. The book details how to dress at three stages in your career getting a job, succeeding in your job, and obtaining a better job. Although Dress Smart Men is laid out in these three sections, the authors discuss their dress philosophy throughout the book. One fundamental point they make is that it is important to dress well because others will judge you, consciously and subconsciously, based on how you dress. Your wardrobe is a tool that you must use effectively to advance in your career. You must examine how you dress, eliminate items that you do not conk out, and stock your closet wisely. The authors state that your goal should be style, which is timeless, as opposed to fashion, which changes frequently. Your clothing choices should emphasize smell over quantity however, you do not need to spend an extra vagant amount of money to look professional. Your wardrobe should also be versatile, giving you the qualification to mix and match outfits. As you get higher in position, you should buy higher quality clothing. If you choose your clothing wisely it will enhance and get along your business career.III. Critical Evaluation of WorkGross and Stone have laid out a very conservative philosophy of dress. They believe that you should wear what has become the established style of dress in the business environment. Many today refuse to follow standards that were held in previous generations. According to the humanistic worldview, on that point are no absolutes. Each person decides for themselves what is right and wrong. Believing in humanism will greatly affect how a person lives his life, and this effect is peculiarly apparent in ones dress standard. As Christians, we understand that absolutes do exist, and we should realize the importance of standards. By advocating conservative standard s in this book, Gross and Stone reject the philosophy of relativistic humanism.Although Gross and Stone have a good philosophy of dress, they seem to place too high an importance on clothing. Although they claim that you do not necessarily need to spend a lot of money to dress professionally, they later state that becoming more successful...doesnt really allow for $200 suits anymore. (111) While it is important to dress well, I disagree that you need to buy the most expensive clothing to further your career.

An Analytical Essay on Excessive Pride in Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart :: Things Fall Apart essays

Excessive Pride in Things regress Apart     In Chinua Achebes novel Things Fall Apart, a fountainhead-known aphorism, pride goes before a fall, was used. I agreed with and supported this statement. The story line itself backed up this statement as well. Through Okonkwos hard work he became a great man with a sense of pride and haughtiness, who then suffered a loss of pride, which ultimately conduct to his down fall and his own suicide.   This book went along with the commonly stated cliché. In addition to that, there was a widely known joke that went well with this. One day there was an airplane buffer z angiotensin converting enzyme flying Bill Clinton, Bill Gates, Bill (a kid), and Billy Gram. Something went wrong with the plane, so it had to be abandoned. The airplane pilot strapped on a parachute and utter to them, there is only four parachutes but I am taking one. Bill Clinton grabbed the second one and said, I am the most important man and my country needs me so I am taking one too. Then, Bill Gates grabbed the third one and said, I am the smartest man in the world and my people need me. So, Bill (a kid) was just looking... at the fourth parachute and Billy Gram said to him, I am an old man and you are young, you have your whole life ahead of you, take the last parachute. Finally, Bill (a kid) looked up at him and said, I was not thinking about that, its just that the smartest man in the world took my backpack.   As you saw from the book and the joke, both Okonkwo, and Bill Gates were full of preconceived opinion pride. They thought they were great men, and saw others as inferior to them and incapable of living substantially if they were not the backbone. Okonkwos pride grew immensely when he was an eighteen-year-old boy increment up in Umuofia. His father, Unoka was a lazy and imprudent man so Okonkwo sought to be everything his father was not. He threw Amalinze the Cat, who was a wily craftsman, and great matman that was unbeaten for seven years from Umuofia to Mbaino. That victory made Okonkwo known past the nine villages.